Introduction
According to Valdes (1986), the
interrelationship of language and culture has
caused, and it will continue to cause, heated
debates among theoreticians. Although it is
not clear how they influence one another or
which one is the dominant aspect of
communication, the current consensus is that
they operate as two parts of a whole rather
than independently. Hence, any study of
language involves a study of culture too.
In addition, there are concepts in any
language that are unique to that language or
to the culture associated with that language.
These concepts are called culture-bound or
culture-specific items (Schwars, 2003) and
create a cultural gap between speakers of
different languages. Since translation
involves two languages and two cultures, a
proper translation has to bridge this gap as
far as possible
Religious texts in general and the Holy
Qur'an in particular abound in culture-specific terms which require special
attention in translation. One of the
categories of culture-bound terms in the
Muslim culture is that of practical laws of
religion or practices of religion (Furū al-Dīn) that will be used as the material of this
study.
The Holy Qur'an has been translated into
many languages including almost all
languages spoken in the Muslim World. Up
to now, printed translations of the Qur’an
have been published for the most important
languages spoken by Muslims such as
Persian, English, Chinese, Japanese,
Indonesian, Balochi, and so on (Dammen,
2006, p. 342). Since one of the most widely-used languages is English, this study aims to
compare terms related to practices of the
religion or practical laws of religion (Furū
al-Dīn) − as referred to in Practical Laws of
Islam (Turner, 1998) and The Practical
Laws of Islam (Islamic Propagation
Organization, 1983) − in the Holy Qur'an
with their five English translations to see
how the translators have tackled the
translation problems in translating these
cultural terms.
Translation procedures
Different theorists have suggested different
procedures for the translation of cultural
items. For example, Vladimir Ivir (1987) has
proposed the following seven procedures:
1. definition
2. literal translation
3. substitution
4. lexical creation
5. omission
6. addition
7. borrowing
Hervey & Higgins (1992) have suggested
the following procedures:
1. cultural transplantation
2. cultural borrowing
3. communicative translation
4. calque
5. exoticism
And the procedures proposed by Newmark
(1988a) are as follows:
1. transference
2. naturalization
3. cultural equivalent
4. functional equivalent
5. descriptive equivalent
6. synonymy
7. through translation
8. shift or transposition
9. modulation
10. recognized translation
11. translation label
12. compensation
13. componential analysis
14. reduction and expansion
15. paraphrase
The classification offered by Newmark
(1988a) is too broad and covers cultural as
well as non-cultural items. In addition,
according to Wylie (2004, p.12) some of the
translation procedures suggested by
Newmark (1988a) are “by nature temporary
solutions to specific problems and none is
likely to become the accepted standard
solution." Hervey & Higgins’ classification
(1992), unlike Newmark's, seems to be too
limited and not applicable to the translation
of all kinds of culture-bound terms.
Therefore, the theoretical framework of the
present study will be the classification
postulated by Ivir (1987), a neat model that
focuses on the translation of culture-bound
elements and seems to cover all the
translation procedures suggested by the
above-mentioned theorists. Vladimir Ivir
(1987) has proposed his predominantly
cultural model in an article entitled
“procedures and strategies for the translation
of culture”. This model has been used by
various researchers such as Jennifer Wylie
(2004).
Translation of culture-bound terms
One of the most recurrent difficulties
encountered by translators is to find
equivalents for culture-bound terms.
According to Newmark (1988b, p.94),
culture-bound terms are particularly “tied to
the way of life and its manifestations that are
peculiar to a community that uses a
particular language as its means of
expression.”
As Wylie (2004) points out, culture-bound
concepts give rise to some of the most
difficult translation problems; even where
the two cultures involved are not too distant,
they can be more problematic for the
translator than the semantic or syntactic
difficulties of the text.
Schwarz (2003, p.14) defines culture-bound
terms as “concepts in any language that are
unique to that language or to the culture
associated with that language and create a
cultural gap between speakers of different
languages.”
Numerous studies have been carried out on
the translation of culture-bound terms. For
example, Hariyanto (1999) has studied the
appropriate procedures used to translate
culture-bound sentences, words, and
expressions in Japanese culture into English.
The results show that to translate culture-bound words or expressions, the translators
have used addition, componential analysis,
cultural equivalence, descriptive
equivalence, literal translation, modulation,
recognized translation, reduction,
synonymy, transference, deletion and
combination. On the appropriateness of the
procedures for translating culture-bound
terms, the study shows that descriptive
equivalents are appropriate to translate
culture-bound words or expressions not
found in English culture but considered
important enough in the text.
In another study, Jennifer Wylie (2004)
investigates the translation of culture-bound
terms in viticultural texts from French into
English and identifies the following
appropriate translation procedures:
transference, cultural equivalence,
naturalization, literal translation, label, and
neutralization.
In this study we have compared culture-bound terms concerning practical laws of
religion in the Holy Qur’an and five English
translations of them to see what kind of
procedures have been used by different
translators and which procedure(s) is/are the
most frequent and effective one(s).
Method
The terms related to Practical laws of
religion (Furū al-Dīn) in the Holy Qur’an
were traced and their equivalences were
identified in the five English versions
translated by Shakir (1985): Tr1, Yusuf Ali
(1996): Tr2, Pickthall (1990): Tr3, Al-Hilali
and Muhsin Khan (1995): Tr4, and Arberry
(1955): Tr5.
After choosing the Arabic terms, their
equivalences were found in the five English
translations of the Holy Qur’an. Next, the
procedure(s) used for the translation of each
item by each translator was/were identified.
Finally, the most frequent procedure(s)
was/were identified and examined in terms
of appropriateness and efficacy.
Data Analysis
The following terms related to practical laws
of religion are considered in the present
article:
As regards the first term ‘Salât’, occuring in
the following verse, table 1 shows that all
the translators but Tr4 have used literal
translation.
[Shakir] Those who believe in the unseen
and keep up prayer and spend out of what
we have given them.
[Yusuf Ali] Who believe in the Unseen, are
steadfast in prayer, and spend out of what
We have provided for them.
[Pickthal] Who believe in the Unseen, and
establish worship, and spend of that We
have bestowed upon them.
[Al-Hilali] Who believe in the Ghaib and
perform As-Salât (Iqâmat-as-Salât), and
spend out of what we have provided for
them [i.e. give Zakât, spend on themselves,
their parents, their children, their wives, etc.,
and also give charity to the poor and also in
Allâh's Cause - Jihâd, etc.].
[Arberry] who believe in the Unseen, and
perform the prayer, and expend of that We
have provided them.
Regarding the second term ‘Sawm’,
occuring in the following verse, all the
translators have used literal translation. As
table 2 shows Tr4 has used both literal and
borrowing as his translation procedures.
[Shakir] O you who believe! fasting is
prescribed for you, as it was prescribed for
those before you, so that you may guard
(against evil).
[Yusuf Ali] O ye who believe! Fasting is
prescribed to you as it was prescribed to
those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint.
[Pickthal] O ye who believe! Fasting is
prescribed for you, even as it was
prescribed for those before you, that ye may
ward off (evil).
[Al-Hilali] O you who believe! Observing
As-Saum (the fasting) is prescribed for you
as it was prescribed for those before you,
that you may become Al-Muttaqûn (the
pious - see V.2:2).
[Arberry] O believers, prescribed for you is
the Fast, even as it was prescribed for those
that were before you -- haply you will be
godfearing.
In the case of the third term ‘Hajj’, figuring
in the following verse, as it is shown in table
3, literal translation is the procedure used by
Tr1, Tr3, Tr5 and Tr2, Tr4 have preferred
borrowing as their translation procedure.
[Shakir] And accomplish the pilgrimage
and the visit for Allah.
[Yusuf Ali] And complete the Hajj or 'umra
in the service of Allah.
[Pickthal] Perform the pilgrimage and the
visit (to Makka) for Allah.
[Al-Hilali] And perform properly (i.e. all
the ceremonies according to the ways of
Prophet Muhammad (SAW), the Hajj and
'Umrah (i.e. the pilgrimage to Makkah) for
Allâh.
[Arberry] Fulfil the Pilgrimage and the
Visitation unto God.
Considering the next term ‘Zakât', as table 4
shows, Tr4 has used the procedure
borrowing while other translators have
resorted to literal translation.
[Shakir] And keep up prayer and pay the
poor-rate and bow down with those who
bow down.
[Yusuf Ali] And be steadfast in prayer;
practise regular charity; and bow down
your heads with those who bow down (in
worship).
[Pickthal] Establish worship, pay the poor-due, and bow your heads with those who
bow (in worship).
[Al-Hilali] And perform As-Salât (Iqâmat-as-Salât), and give Zakât, and Irka' (i.e. bow
down or submit yourselves with obedience
to Allâh) along with ArRaki'ûn.
[Arberry] And perform the prayer, and pay
the alms, and bow with those that bow.
[Shakir] And know that whatever thing you
gain, a fifth of it is for Allah and for the
Messenger and for the near of kin and the
orphans and the needy and the wayfarer,
[Yusuf Ali] And know that out of all the
booty that ye may acquire (in war), a fifth
share is assigned to Allah,- and to the
Messenger, and to near relatives, orphans,
the needy, and the wayfarer.
[Pickthal] And know that whatever ye take
as spoils of war, lo! a fifth thereof is for
Allah, and for the messenger and for the
kinsman (who hath need) and orphans and
the needy and the wayfarer.
[Al-Hilali] And know that whatever of war-booty that you may gain, verily one-fifth
(1/5th) of it is assigned to Allâh, and to the
Messenger, and to the near relatives [of the
Messenger (Muhammad SAW)], (and also)
the orphans, Al-Masâkin (the poor) and the
wayfarer.
[Arberry] Know that, whatever booty you
take, the fifth of it is God's, and the
Messenger's, and the near kinsman's, and the
orphans', and for the needy, and the traveler.
For translating the term ‘Jihad', arguably one
of the most important culture-bound terms in
the Holy Qur’an, all the translators have
used literal translation except for Tr4 who
has prefereed has used addition.
[Shakir] Say: If your fathers and your sons
and your brethren and your mates and your
kinsfolk and property which you have
acquired, and the slackness of trade which
you fear and dwellings which you like, are
dearer to you than Allah and His Messenger
and striving in His way, then wait till Allah
brings about His command:
[Yusuf Ali] Say: If it be that your fathers,
your sons, your brothers, your mates, or
your kindred; the wealth that ye have
gained; the commerce in which ye fear a
decline: or the dwellings in which ye delight
- are dearer to you than Allah, or His
Messenger, or the striving in His cause;-
then wait until Allah brings about His
decision.
[Pickthal] Say: If your fathers, and your
sons, and your brethren, and your wives, and
your tribe, and the wealth ye have acquired,
and merchandise for which ye fear that there
will no sale, and dwellings ye desire are
dearer to you than Allah and His messenger
and striving in His way: then wait till Allah
bringeth His command to pass.
[Al-Hilali] Say: If your fathers, your sons,
your brothers, your wives, your kindred, the
wealth that you have gained, the commerce
in which you fear a decline, and the
dwellings in which you delight … are dearer
to you than Allâh and His Messenger, and
striving hard and fighting in His Cause[],
then wait until Allâh brings about His
Decision (torment).
[Arberry] say: “if your fathers, your sons,
your brothers, your wives, your clan, your
possessions that you have gained, commerce
you fear may slacken, dwellings you love- if
these are dearer to you than Godand His
Messenger, and to struggle in his way, then
wait till God brings His command.
In the case of the terms ‘Amr-Bil-Ma’ruf’
and ‘Nahi-Anil-Munkar’, occuring in the
verse below, as table 7 shows, all the
translators but Tr4 who has employed
addition , have used the procedure of literal
translation.
[Shakir] They who turn (to Allah), who
serve (Him), who praise (Him), who fast,
who bow down, who prostrate themselves,
who enjoin what is good and forbid what
is evil, and who keep the limits of Allah; and
give good news to the believers.
[Yusuf Ali] Those that turn (to Allah) in
repentance; that serve Him, and praise Him;
that wander in devotion to the cause of
Allah,: that bow down and prostrate
themselves in prayer; that enjoin good and
forbid evil; and observe the limit set by
Allah;- (These do rejoice). So proclaim the
glad tidings to the Believers.
[Pickthal] (Triumphant) are those who turn
repentant (to Allah), those who serve (Him),
those who praise (Him), those who fast,
those who bow down, those who fall
prostrate (in worship), those who enjoin the
right and who forbid the wrong and those
who keep the limits (ordained) of Allah -
And give glad tidings to believers!
[Al-Hilali] (The believers whose lives Allâh
has purchased are) those who repent to
Allâh (from polytheism and hypocrisy, etc.),
who worship Him, who praise Him, who
fast (or go out in Allâh's Cause), who bow
down (in prayer), who prostrate themselves
(in prayer), who enjoin (people) for Al-Ma'rûf (i.e. Islâmic Monotheism and all
what Islâm has ordained) and forbid
(people) from Al-Munkar (i.e. disbelief,
polytheism of all kinds and all that Islâm
has forbidden), and who observe the limits
set by Allâh (do all that Allâh has ordained
and abstain from all kinds of sins and evil
deeds which Allâh has forbidden). And give
glad tidings to the believers.
[Arberry] Those who repent, those who
serve, those who pray, those who journey,
those who bow, those who prostrate
themselves, those who bid to honour and
forbid dishonour, those who keep God's
hounds -- and give thou good tidings to the
believers.
Regarding the term ‘tawalla’, as table 8
shows, all the translators have used literal
translation as their translation procedure.
[Shakir] O you who believe! do not make
friends with a people with whom Allah is
wroth; indeed they despair of the hereafter
as the unbelievers despair of those in tombs.
[Yusuf Ali] O ye who believe! Turn not
(for friendship) to people on whom is the
Wrath of Allah, of the Hereafter they are
already in despair, just as the Unbelievers
are in despair about those (buried) in graves.
[Pickthal] O ye who believe! Be not
friendly with a folk with whom Allah is
wroth, (a folk) who have despaired of the
Hereafter as the disbelievers despair of those
who are in the graves.
[Al-Hilali] O you who believe! Take not as
friends the people who incurred the Wrath
of Allâh (i.e. the Jews). Surely, they have
been in despair to receive any good in the
Hereafter, just as the disbelievers have been
in despair about those (buried) in graves
(that they will not be resurrected on the Day
of Resurrection).
[Arberry] O believers, take not for friends
a people against whom God is wrathful, and
who have despaired of the world to come,
even as the unbelievers have despaired of
the inhabitants of the tombs.
[Shakir] When those who were followed
shall renounce those who followed (them),
and they see the chastisement and their ties
are cut asunder.
[Yusuf Ali] Then would those who are
followed clear themselves of those who
follow (them): They would see the penalty,
and all relations between them would be cut
off.
[Pickthal] (On the day) when those who
were followed disown those who followed
(them), and they behold the doom, and all
their aims collapse with them.
[Al-Hilali] When those who were followed,
disown (declare themselves innocent of)
those who followed (them), and they see the
torment, then all their relations will be cut
off from them.
[Arberry] when those that were followed
disown their followers, and they see the
chastisement, and their cords are cut asunder
when those that were followed disown their
followers, and they see the chastisement,
and their cords are cut asunder.
Conclusion
Every act of translation involves at least two
languages and two cultures; hence, the
proper translation of cultural items is one of
the most important aspects of translation to
which due attention must be paid.
Translators have to find the most appropriate
procedures to successfully convey these
aspects in the target language. Of course,
this success is bound to be always relative.
Based on the analysis of the translation of
the terms related to Practical laws of religion
(Furū al-Dīn) in the Holy Qur’an, three out
of seven (of the above procedures) were
observed to be used by the selected
translators. These procedures are displayed
in table 10 below in order of their frequency.
As table 10 shows, the procedures of literal
translation, borrowing and addition are most
frequently used by the above translators; the
procedures of definition, omission,
substitution and lexical creation have no
occurrence in the translations of the selected
materials. It seems that according to the
translators whose work has been considered
in this study, literal translation is the most
appropriate procedure in translating such
culture-bound terms. As such, the findings
of the present study are in line with those of
Ivir (1987) who believes that literal
translation is the most common method of
cultural transference and spread of influence
from one culture into another. He also
asserts that "the main value of this procedure
is its faithfulness to the source language
expressions and its transparency in the target
language" (p.41). Since faithfulness is one of
the most important factors in the translation
of religious texts, and the Holy Qur'an in
particular, the appropriateness of this
procedure for the translation of culture-bound terms of the Holy Qur'an is evident.
One more point in this regard is the
influence of ideological leanings of
translators and interpretive tendencies of the
religious orders to which they belong on the
selection of translation procedures. For
instance, Tr4 (Al-Hilali & Muhsin Khan)
with their Salafi persuasion (which tends to
have a literal interpretation of the Qur’an)
have used literal translation, borrowing and
addition most frequently. Tr5 (Arberry), a
non-Muslim translator, has not used
borrowing or addition at all. His emphasis is
basically on the general sense of terms
whereas Muslim translators seem to be
keener on shades of meaning or interpretive
nuances, especially if the translators have
more literalist tendencies in their religious
persuasion.
Another point to be taken into consideration
is that a uniform treatment of elements of
culture in translation is not possible. The
translators of such items have to choose
from among the possible procedures by
considering the nature of the cultural term to
be translated and the nature of the
communicative process in which it appears.
As a final comment on the appropriateness
of the procedures used for the translation of
the selected material (see Appendix for the
summary), we quote the statements made by
Ivir (1987) in this regard. As he puts it,
For the translator there is a hierarchy of
options or an order of preference with
respect to the translation procedures. He
knows that borrowing, lexical creation,
literal translation and definition (in that
order) will explicitly draw the receiver’s
attention to the specific source-culture
content, while substitution and omission will
mask it; addition makes explicit the
information that was unexpressed yet
implicit in the source text . . . (p.47)
